Ramayana Parampara in Assam

This is the first part in a series of articles on the Ramayana Parampara of North-East India – a tradition that is today almost on the verge of extinction because of a wide array of religious and socio-cultural factors that shall be discussed subsequently. Just like any other state of Bharatvarsha, Maryada Purushottam Shri Ram occupies His own place of cultural, spiritual, and religious importance in the lives of the people of the North-East too, including the many different vanavasi groups and communities residing in different areas of this region.

This series shall cover all eight different North-Eastern states and their historical and socio-cultural connection with Shri Ram and the story of the Ramayana. The overall storyline of the Ramayana that used to be popular among the people of the North-East before the advent of Christianity is very much the same as that of Valmiki Ramayana, the only difference being the names of the different characters and as well as the names of the places which have a local, regional touch.

The first state that has been taken up for this purpose is Assam, with reference to the Ramayana Parampara still prevalent here among the different vanavasi communities. In this context, we need to understand that the different religious belief systems and modes of worship of these vanavasis share a close resemblance with Hindu Dharma. This, in part, explains the cultural and spiritual significance of Ram and the Ramayana as a text/oral tradition in their lives.

Assam boasts of a fairly extensive body of written literature on the Ramayana, the most outstanding work in this category being the 14^th-century adaptation of the epic by the famous poet Madhav Kandali. The Vaishnavite Bhakti movement of Srimanta Sankardeva during the 14^th-15^th centuries in the backdrop of the blood-thirsty Muslim invasions had also played a very important role, both socially and culturally, in restoring the rich civilizational glory of Dharma at a time when temples were being mercilessly razed down and the murtis installed inside their garbhagrihas desecrated and defiled by the marauding invaders.

In the context of Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam and the valorous role of Senapati Lachit Barphukan, the story of Shri Ram resonates more deeply in the hearts and minds of the Hindus of Assam. It needs to be mentioned here that the Ramayana of Madhav Kandali of the early 16^th century is the earliest complete version of the Ramayana in the Assamese language and by far the best and the most influential among all.

The other important versions of the Ramayana in the Assamese language are – (i) the Giti-Ramayana of Durgavara Kayastha, a lyrical version chiefly based on Madhav Kandali’s work; (ii) Ananta Kandali’s Ramayana with a Vaishnavite touch (mid-16^th century); (iii) Srirama Kirtana by Ananta Dasa, based on the famous Kirtan-Ghosa of Srimanta Sankardeva and meant for the purpose of singing mainly during congregational prayers (mid-17^th century); and, (iv) Ramayana-Katha, a prose version by Raghunath Mahanta (late 18^th century).

Tulsidas’ Ramcharitmanas was translated into Assamese by Suryakanta Vipra towards the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries. There are also several other works based on the Ramayana in the Assamese language, some of them episodic while others adapted from popular oral sources or literature inspired by the Ramayana of Valmiki. A few of the more well-known among these are Laksmanara Saktisela by Ramasarasvati, Mahiravana Vadha by Chandra Bharati, Ganaka-caritra by Dhananjaya, and Adbhuta Ramayana and Satrunjaya by Raghunath Mahanta.

There are also a number of traditional plays in Assam based on different themes and episodes from the Ramayana, the earliest and the most important of them being Srimanta Sankardeva’s Ramavijaya. In fact, several Assamese literary works and popular stories of the later period are woven around different themes from Valmiki’s Ramayana. Interestingly, some of these stories are also to be found in neighbouring Cooch-Behar and present-day Bengal. Hence, it is very much likely that these stories were commonly prevalent in this entire region.

With time, many of these stories got incorporated into the well-known Krttivasi Ramayana of Bengal; whereas, in Assam, they found a place in different Ram-katha stories still popular among different vanavasi communities. Many such stories contain several references to different species of birds and animals commonly found in these parts of the country. This also signifies the importance of the natural environment in our day-to-day lives. 

In one of the episodes from Madhav Kandali’s Ramayana in Assamese, we come across a story of the raven, known as Dhura-Kauri in Assamese. During Ram’s exile in the forest, He sleeps with His head on Sita’s lap. It was excruciatingly hot and Ram was tired. Suddenly, a raven who is drawn towards Sita’s beauty begins pecking at Her. Although Sita feels hurt and tears run down Her cheeks, She neither moves nor cries out loud, so as not to wake up Ram from His deep slumber.

Ram, however, wakes up soon and understands what had just happened. He immediately gets up, takes His bow and shoots an arrow piercing into one of the eyes of the raven. The raven eventually loses its vision. Since then, the belief still prevails in Assam that the raven sees with only one eye because of the punishment meted out to it by Shri Ram. This particular story is also found in Krttivasa’s Bengali Ramayana.

But it is certain that Madhav Kandali, being the earlier poet, could not have been influenced by Krttivasa. Krttivasa’s Ramayana was available in print much before Kandali’s. This has therefore ensured that the popular stories associated with the Ramayana and now almost a part of the local Ramayana lores, become commonplace in Assam in comparatively recent times as a result of the influence of Krttivasa’s Ramayana. There are several such stories, influenced by local motifs and local elements, that are to be found in the other versions of the Ramayana in the Assamese language, as mentioned above.

The example of Durgavara’s Giti-Ramayana can be cited in this context. On one occasion, during their exile in the forest, Sita draws an illusory image of Ayodhya (maya-Ayodhya) and engages in mot-khela, a springtime sport featuring the sprinkling of water, with Ram. This episode, undoubtedly, was inspired by a local custom prevalent in Assam at that time. Reference to this sport played on the occasion of Madana Puja (worship of Kamdeva) is also found in historian Surya Kumar Bhuyan’s Tripura Buranji.

In another instance, when Ram keeps wandering about in the forest in search of Sita, He comes across a sakowa (a duck, locally known as Ramkang) who ridicules Ram for having failed to protect His wife. Ram becomes angry and curses the sakowa that it will always have to remain separate from his mate at night. The bird later repents and seeks Ram’s forgiveness. But a belief prevails in many parts of Lower Assam even today that the bird continues to live with Ram’s curse and that it wanders all night wailing in pain- ‘Ram kang, Ram kang’ (‘I will tell Ram, I will tell Ram’).

In this regard, it is worth mentioning here that the different versions of the Ramayana prevalent in the Northeast share much in common with the Ram-Katha stories popular in Tibet, and the South-East Asian countries of Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Cambodia. Because of the indomitable courage and heroism of Hindu veers such as Lachit Barphukan, much of the Hindu cultural and civilisational heritage of South-East Asia still remains alive. Had the Mughals been able to conquer Assam, they would have had easy access to this region of the world for establishing the rule of their sword.

Hanuman Ji occupies an important place in all the versions of the Ramayana prevalent in Assam. The Mahiravana Vadha by Chandra Bharati describes how Ram and Lakshman are abducted by Ravan’s son Mahiravana, who plans to sacrifice them before Mahakali. But they are eventually rescued by Hanuman with the help of His miraculous powers. In some versions of the story, Mahiravana’s son Ahiravana appears as Garbhasura.

In most of these stories, Hanuman has been presented as the hero who performs extraordinary feats in a bid to rescue Sita from the evil machinations of Ravana. He takes the form of a cat and enters the private apartments of Mandodari. He steals her jewels and inflicts wounds upon her which outrages Ravana. This story is popular in several parts of Western Assam even today.

Several traditional forms of performing arts and modes of entertainment popular in Assam, from music to drama, owe their origins to different themes from the Ramayana. Different proverbs, sayings, and idioms too, abound in allusions not only to characters and events from the Ramayana but also to values enshrined in it. The Ram-Katha provides the themes for a large number of Assamese songs of different types. One such type of song is the Baramahi Geet, literally meaning, ‘the song of the twelve months’.

There are two different types of such Baramahi Geets – Ram Baramahi and Sita Baramahi. Both of them describe in poignant detail the agony of Ram and Sita, respectively, from month to month, while they are separated from each other. Apart from these, marriage songs, which are an important feature of Assamese wedding ceremonies and an exclusive preserve of the womenfolk, contain several references to Ram, Sita, Lakshman, and other characters and episodes from the Ramayana.

Similarly, Naam-Kirtan Paath, which is a form of congregational singing of Vaishnava Bhakti Geets composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and His disciple Madhavdeva, are replete with different themes from the Ramayana. There is a genre of Naam called Nagara-Naam, which is more popular in the districts of Barpeta, Goalpara, and Nalbari in Lower Assam. Stories from the Ramayana presented in the form of songs constitute an important part of Nagara-Naam. The story of Mahiravana and Athiravana (known as Tolka/Telka Raban locally) is one such.

It is a fact that several performing art forms in different parts of Bharat have always played an important role in bringing different stories from the epics within the easy reach of the illiterate masses of our country. Quite certainly, performances based on the Ramayana have been the most popular among them all. In Assam, traditional performing art forms based on stories from the Ramayana are:

1. Bhaona – a traditional Vaishnavite dance-drama evolved by Srimanta Sankardeva in the 15^th century. Plays based on Ram-Katha stories are among the most popularly staged of all the different forms of Bhaona performances in Assam.

A Bhaona performance staged by Class IV students of VKV, Golaghat

Picture Credits: https://golaghat.vkv.in/2018/01/bhaona-by-class-iv-students.html

2. Oja-Pali – one of the oldest performing art forms of Assam, Oja-Pali incorporates within itself song, dance, and as well as drama. Performed by an Oja (master) and a number of paalis (assistants), Oja-Paali has two distinct variants – Marai-Goa or Mare-Goa Oja, associated with the Sakta form of worship and the worship of Devi Manasa; and, Biyah-Goa Oja, associated with Vaishnava Naam-Kirtan. Some Oja-Paali troupes of the latter variety which specialise in performances based on the Ram-Katha are popularly known as Ramayan-Goa Oja-Paalis.

Oja-Pali performance. The Oja in the middle is surrounded by his Paalis.

3. Putala-Naach – this is the Assamese name for puppet dance. It is one of the oldest and most popular forms of entertainment in Assam. Different stories from the Ramayana constitute a major part of the repertoires for most of the Putala-Naach troupes.
4. Kushan Gaan/Bena Gaan – popular in the westernmost parts of Assam, Kushan Gaan is believed to have derived its name from Kusha, one of the sons of Ram and Sita. Also known as Bena Gaan because of its indispensable association with a one-stringed musical instrument called Bena, Kushan Gaan was originally associated with the Ram-Katha tradition. This is borne out by the fact that one of the other alternative names of this traditional art form is Raban Gaan. It is said that in the original form of Kushan Gaan, two boys dressed up as Lava and Kusha took leading parts in singing the main narrative. One such similar practice was followed in a Ramayana-based singing performance in the Nagaon district of central Assam which, however, is today on the point of extinction.
5. Bhari Gaan – featuring the use of heavy wooden masks, this performing art form survives today mainly in the southern parts of Goalpara and Kamrup districts of Lower Assam among the Garo and the Rabha communities. Most of the themes of these plays which still continue to be performed today in these areas of Assam are based on stories from the Ramayana.

A Bhari Gaan performance with the different characters donning different masks.

Source: https://www.sahapedia.org/bhari-gan-theatrical-tradition-of-assam

6. Khuliya Bhaoria – this form of art, once quite popular in the Kamrup and Mangaldoi districts of Lower Assam, is basically an innovation of the earlier traditional forms of drama and dramatic styles. A majority of the themes of these plays are drawn from different stories of the Ramayana.
7. Dhuliya Bhaoria – this form of performing art, unfortunately, has almost become extinct in today’s date. Dhuliya (drummer) parties from Lower Assam, apart from performing on their drums and as well as putting up acrobatic displays, used to stage short humorous kits. Episodes from both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata provided the basic plots for most of these skits.

As mentioned in the very beginning of this article, the Ramayana has been a deep source of social, cultural, religious, and spiritual influence among the different vanavasis of the North-East including Assam. Different degrees of penetration of the Ramayana in its own different and unique ways can be observed among the Bodo-Kacharis, the Misings, the Rabhas, the Karbis, the Dimasas, the Tiwas, etc. residing in the hills and plains of Assam and the adjoining areas. Stories from the Ramayana are almost as familiar to people from these groups and communities as to their fellow brethren in the rest of Bharatvarsha. In some cases, although such stories have been given their characteristic local flavours, their basic Hindu orientation remains the same. 

Through this article, a humble attempt has been made to discuss the different traditions of the Ramayana prevalent among the Karbis and the Tiwas of Assam. The Karbis or Arlengs are primarily concentrated in the Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao Hill districts of Assam. They are also scattered in the plain areas of the same district and as well as in the plains of neighbouring Nowgong, Sibsagar, and Kamrup districts.

A significant section of the Karbis is also found in the contiguous areas of Meghalaya and Nagaland. Earlier, the term Mikir was used to designate both the Karbi community and their language. Although Christianity has made inroads among a section of the Karbis of Assam, however, hanhari (the equivalent of xanxari in Assamese and samsari in Sanskrit) or the traditional religious belief system of the Karbis still prevails.

The principles and values upon which hanhari is based are not different from the basic foundational principles of Hindu Dharma. The Karbis have their own version of the Ramayana in their own language, known as the Sabin Alun, or alternatively as Ram-Lakhan Keplang. Lun in the Karbi language means a song, and the literal meaning of Sabin Alun is ‘Sabin’s song’ – Sabin supposedly being the name of the original composer/singer. The story is set in a typical Karbi mould. Certain interesting peculiarities with regard to episodes and incidents, as well as the terms of sequence and emphasis abound in the Karbi Ramayana are unique in themselves due to the fact that they are not to be found in the Ramayana of Valmiki. For example, in the Sabin Alun, Ravana (Raban) has twelve heads and not ten.

Then, Ravana comes for the trial with the bow at Raja Janaka’s place (Janak Recho or Bamanpo) even before Ram. Again, after the Surpanakha episode during the exile in the forest, it is Ravana himself who takes the form of the golden deer prior to the abduction of Sita. While the names of some of the characters from the Ramayana have been retained, although, with their own local Karbi charm, some other characters have been given specifically Karbi names. For example, Hanuman, Parashuram, Lava, and Kusha figure in the Sabin Alun in different variants such as Haliman, Barpuram, Lu-ut, and Sumbut, respectively. Even the settings/locales of the text have been made to conform to the local geography and hilly topography of the region where the Karbis reside.

Similarly, Sita’s father Bamanpo is a well-to-do Karbi farmer who spends most of his time in his jhum farmland away from his homestead. He thus fails to recognise the grown-up Sita when She first carries food and rice beer to him in his farmhouse in a basket slung over Her head. In the Sabin Alun, there are also many descriptions of rice-beer and betel nut being served by Sita to guests during religious ceremonies and feasts. Both these two items constitute an inalienable and indispensable part of the Assamese Hindu way of life. There is another description of Sita being an ardent weaver, and one of the reasons why She wants to have Surpanakha married to Lakshman is that the latter would make a good weaving partner. Again, Sita wants the golden deer to be killed because its skin would make a fine seat for Her while weaving.

The performance of the Sabin Alun takes place in the form of a long narrative ballad that is sung in an atmosphere of sanctity and reverence marked by certain rituals. In today’s date, the Sabin Alun is known in entirety to only a few old Karbi singers. It consists of hundreds of couplets that are sung to a charmingly sweet, repetitive tune in a gradual, slow tempo. The complete rendering of the whole text of the ballad takes around two to three nights of singing. A widespread belief among the Karbis is that no singer should sing the entire Sabin Alun more than three times in his lifetime, and upon the completion of the singing for the last time, a special ritual, including the sacrifice of a fowl, is to be done. Hence, the Sabin Alun occupies a special place of importance in the socio-cultural and religious lives of the Karbis.

Even today, a belief prevails among the Karbis that they are the progeny of Valmiki Himself. A few other sections of the Karbis similarly, associate themselves with Sugriva. Nevertheless, a distinctly Karbi aura breathes through the Sabin Alun. Similar is the case with the Ramayana of the Tiwas, also known as the Lalungs, who have deep cultural contacts with the Karbis. Hence, the Tiwa version of the Ramayana is akin to the Sabin Alun. Just like the Karbis, the Tiwas also seem to attach special significance to the story of the Ramayana, the narration of which takes place over several nights. Also, in the Tiwa Ramayana too, the performance of special rituals like the sacrifice of a cock is required to mark the end of the formal narrative performance.

In terms of its ritualistic significance and the details of the contents, the Tiwa version of the Ramayana has been, to a large extent, influenced by the Sabin Alun. The Tiwa Ramayana story is also recited in the form of a long verse. Sadly, today only a handful of people can narrate the entire story in that same format. The story itself contains most of the principal events of Valmiki’s Ramayana. However, there are certain unique features characterised by Tiwa religious motifs, socio-religious customs, dress and food habits. E.g. Sita requests Ram to catch the golden spotted deer so that she might stitch a tagla (a traditional Tiwa shirt worn by males) for Ram from its skin. The cock is regarded by the Tiwas as the son of Ravana, Bijuli Raban. The story in this connection is very similar to that of Tolka or Telka Raban described earlier.

Hence, the Ramayana has always been an integral and inseparable part of the social and cultural lives of the people of the Northeast. It is very unfortunate that these traditions are today almost extinct. Especially in the predominantly Christian states of Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya, the current generation has no idea whatsoever of this rich civilizational legacy which their ancestors had struggled hard to protect from the Islamic invaders and later from the aggressive proselytisation of the Church during the British period. The reasons behind the decline of the traditional belief systems and religious practices of today’s Nagas, Khasis, Garos, and Mizos in particular, will also be dealt with in the ensuing articles on the Ramayana Parampara of the states where these communities reside.

The next article in this series will be based on the almost near-to-extinct Ramayana Parampara among the Garos and the Jaintias of Meghalaya.

Acknowledgement: A mere note of thanks is simply not enough for my Guru, the Late. Bhadrakrishna Goswami Ji, who first introduced me to this topic and himself took the pain, even during his old age, to access the required primary sources and encouraged me to document them.

References:

1. Dr. Subhajit Choudhary and Hemanta Dhing Mazumdar (ed). The North-Eastern Region of India During the Age of the Mahabharata. Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Samiti, Assam, 2018.
2. Hemanta Dhing Mazumdar and Anurag Rudra (ed). The Janajatis of Eeshanya Bharat. Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Samiti, Guwahati, Assam, 2018.
3. B.B. Jamatia. (2011). Religious Philosophy of the Janajatis of Northeast Bharat. Heritage Foundation, Guahati, Assam.
4. Birendranath Datta. (2012). Cultural Contours of North-East India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Image source: The Sentinel Assam