Good Governance Models from Ancient India and their Contemporary Relevance
- In History & Culture
- 01:50 PM, Jul 22, 2018
- Hema Doreswamy
Good governance, for ages, has been the idea of political thinkers, policy planners, decision-makers and the academics. In any society, the basic concern of the citizens is the goodness of the government. And for this the systems and sub-systems of governance must be essentially efficient, effective, economical, ethical and equitable. In the same way, the governance process must also be just, reasonable, fair and citizen caring. To achieve these qualities of good governance, the machinery of governance must also be accountable and responsible. This quest for good governance has, since long, been the mainstay of the evaluation of the functioning of the powers that be. Academic discourse has been largely dependent upon the Western models of the concept of good governance. The study of political thought in present day India is fundamentally West-oriented and West-based. But we find that this is not entirely a new phenomenon and the issue had found prominence in scholarly works on polity and society in early centuries also. We may begin with an attempt to trace the roots of our concern for good governance in ancient Indian scriptures.
The concept of "governance" is not new. It is as old as human civilization. Simply put "governance" means: the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and local governance. Since governance is the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented, an analysis of governance focuses on the formal and informal actors involved in decision-making and implementing the decisions made and the formal and informal structures that have been set in place to arrive at and implement the decision. Government is one of the actors in governance. Other actors involved in governance vary depending on the level of government that is under discussion.
With the beginning of civilization, there arose a need for smooth administration and division of responsibilities. Since the population started to increase, people grew concerned about welfare and able ruling. This led to the rise of an organizational structure that dealt with the nuances of firm ruling and governance. The ancient Indian government was very simple in structure. There used to be a tribe chief who used to appoint helpers to look over the smooth functioning of the society and dealt with grievances of people. With the coming of different empires, the government of ancient India took a more complex and elaborate form. The establishment of large kingdoms in India gave birth to the concept of having a King or a Maharaja who was the head of administration and the state. Everything worked under his command and no one dared to oppose him. He usually used to appoint a council of ministers who used to govern different areas of the state. During the 6th century B.C., 16 Mahajanapadas or 16 great kingdoms were established in India. In ancient Indian government, one finds the different elements of modern government also. The ancient Indian government had three major components in the hierarchy. They were: Legislative, Executive and the Judiciary. The chief head of the three departments was the King. Effective judiciary made sure that crime was under control and the offenders got the apt punishments for their crimes. The ancient Indian government had an effective way of keeping tabs on what people thought of the administration. This was kept in check by a very secretive system of spies. The king used to be updated about what is happening in his kingdom regularly by these spies who used to roam around in the kingdom in disguise. There was effective military and the soldiers were well trained in the art of warfare. There were regular updates of population, birth rate, death rate, etc. Despite a huge empire, administration was controlled and highly effective in ancient India. Since there were many kingdoms and many systems of governance in ancient India, it is difficult to analyze each one of them. Hence the author has chosen the three important and very effective governance models from ancient India- Ramayana, Mahabharata and Arthashastra.
Governance in Ramayana: Ramarajya as has been described in Ramayana had all the characteristics of democracy. In spite of the fact that there was no electoral procedure in those days like the one in the present day democratic system, the public opinion was taken into account and was given due importance. Notwithstanding, there was no written constitution of Ramarajya, the citizens enjoyed the right of equality and avenues of development were open to all. In the eyes of law, all, whether rich or poor, a royal or a beggar, were the same. Everyone enjoyed the socio-religious freedom. Although Rama was the ruler, every person had a right to speak his or her mind. It set a high standard of an ethical and moral conduct. There was all likelihood of getting justice. That is why, Mahatma Gandhi acknowledged Ramarajya as true democracy. In his own words, “In the Ramarajya the meanest citizen could be sure of swift justice without an elaborate and costly procedure. Even the dog is described by the poet to have received justice under Ramarajya.” Rama’s system of administration was a true democracy. He was an ideal king, self-disciplined, obedient, dutiful, patient, dignified, a man of word, law-abiding and coordinator. What people expect of a democratic state? Liberty, equality, rights, duties and so on. They are indispensable to democracy. The main characteristic of Ramarajya was that it covered all aspects of democracy. There was all likelihood of getting justice. Where justice is available even to a common man, there will be no occasion for exploitation. Non-violence would exercise an overbearing influence and peace would be rife among all. In short, justice was the yardstick of democracy. According to principles of governance during Ramayana, the concept of democracy can only be realized if justice is made ubiquitous. According to Rama, a critical factor in good governance is the quality of ministers. Courageous, knowledgeable, strong-willed men with a high emotional quotient as ministers are key to effective governance. The emphasis is on competence and confidentiality. A decision on a complex issue neither to be taken unilaterally nor in consultation with too many people. There should be an efficient core group. Appointing tested men of noble lineage and integrity for strategic positions is the key to successful government. Moderate taxes should be levied on the people, lest they revolt. Trade and agriculture are important according to Rama and he wanted rulers to ensure good irrigation facilities rather than being overly dependent on rains. Traders need to be ensured of a fear-free environment and their grievances should be redressed promptly. Protecting the forests and maintaining livestock have also been dealt with as important aspects of effective governance. In fact, the vision of the Ramayana has eternal relevance. Law and justice, finance and business, corruption framing on innocents for monetary gains, injustice to the poor are all mentioned. In short, the concept of governance in Ramayana is “to provide the maximum happiness for the maximum number of people, for the maximum period, based on the principles of Dharma-righteousness and moral values” Ramayana is India's national idea and is a symbol of good-governance, which we lack in the modern societies.
Governance in Mahabharata: There is an elaborate discussion between Bhishma and Yudistir in Shanthiparva, the twelfth parva from among the eighteen parvas of the Mahabharata about proper functioning of the government, duty of the perfect king and his duties towards his subjects etc. This episode is also known as ‘wisdom literature.’ Few important points to be noted are:
There is nothing which contributes so much to the success of kings as truth. This means ethics and righteousness/ Dharma play a major role in success of a government. So what is Dharma? Mahabharata (Shanti Parva, 109.9-11) says: “Dharma has been explained to be that which helps the upliftment of living beings. Therefore, that which ensures the welfare of living beings is surely Dharma. The Mahabharata (Shanti Parva, 90.3) also says that “The proper function of the king [or any ruler or politician] is to rule according to Dharma and not to enjoy the luxuries of life.” Thus, a politician is not meant to take advantage of his position, but to execute his duties with the welfare of the people in mind, under the guidance of the rules of Dharma. This means that Dharma is not the teaching of a religion, but it is the global ethical standard that we all need to learn. It is the very content that forms good character, proper intentions, the means for making fair and just decisions, and good and effective plans for our future. The basic rules of Dharma, as explained in the Manu-samhita (10.63) are: “Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (not acquiring illegitimate wealth), Shoucham (purity), and Indriyanigraha (control of the senses) are, in brief, the common rules of Dharma for all classes of men. The most important discussions in Shanthiparva are related to: Divine origin of the king, virtues of an ideal king,duties of the king, recruitment of government officials, revenue administration and division of labor
According to Mahabharata the major sources of state revenue consist of one sixth of the income from land, fines and forceful collection from the offenders. But in collection of taxes the king should always abide by the norms and principles laid down by the relevant sastras. Violation of this may lead to disaster for both the king and the kingdom. Taxes should never be imposed without considering the capability of the payee. The economic prosperity of the country depends a good deal on the agriculturists and traders and they should never be oppressed by undue taxes.
In short, we can conclude that, in Mahabharata, the foundation of good governance is righteousness in public affairs. The rulers and the employees who have taken oath of their offices to uphold Dharma/righteousness and to take care of public needs, must not act unethically and unjustly because if they do so, they will not only destroy the moral basis of governance but will also turn a state into a hell.
Governance in Arthashastra:
The Arthashastra was authored by Kautilya around 300 BC. In both internal administration and foreign relations, the comprehensiveness of its treatment is almost unparalleled. Although Kautilya proposed an elaborate welfare state in domestic politics, he was willing to defend the general good of the state with harsh measures. Kautilya says the ruler must aim to be a Vijigishu, one desirous of conquering other territories aiming to ensure Yogakshema and Lokasamgraha of his subjects. Yogakshema means to ensure welfare of the state and subjects implying happiness, prosperity, peace and bliss of his people so as to achieve Lokasamgraha which means to do what is beneficial to people. Kautilya regarded economic activity as the driving force behind the functioning of any political dispensation. In fact, he went to the extent of saying that revenue should take priority over the army because sustaining the army was possible out of a well-managed revenue system. Kautilya was a true statesman who bridged the gap between experience and vision. For Kautilya, good governance was paramount. He suggested built-in checks and balances in systems and procedures for the containment of malpractices. Kautilya's philosophy is based on the principles of "sam, dam, dand, bhed" (persuasion, temptation, punishment, and division) as various, different, and sequential means to achieve an end. Kautilya used the word 'dharma' (which in general, means 'duty') and righteousness in personal and social conduct. He described the basic ethical (dharmic) values as, "Duties common to all - ahimsa (abstaining from injury to all living creatures); satyam (truthfulness); cleanliness; freedom from malice; compassion and tolerance.
The Arthashastra equates political governance with economic governance. The end is economic governance while political governance is the means. But as economic objectives are not realized in the absence of political ones, then political governance becomes an end and economic governance the means. 'The end justifies the means', this is supposed to be the basis of Kautilyan and Machiavellian philosophy. Political power and material wealth according to Kautilya are the means and ends of governance. And good governance - political or economic - depends upon justifying the ends and means as the socio, economic and political conditions.
Good governance in Kautilya's literature is aimed at fulfilling the welfare of the people. "In the happiness of the King's subjects lies his happiness, in their welfare, his welfare. Whatever pleases him personally, he shall not consider as good, but whatever makes his subjects happy, he shall consider good.” The jargon related to Human Resource Management was not prevalent then, but its essence was widely practiced in Kautilya's times. The King should look to the bodily comforts of his servants by providing such emoluments as can infuse in them the spirit of enthusiasm to work. He should not violate the course of righteousness and wealth. Thus, he shall not only maintain his servants, but also increase their subsistence and wages in consideration of their learning and work. Kautilya said that good governance and stability go hand in hand. According to him, there is stability if rulers are responsive, responsible, accountable, removable, and recallable, otherwise there would be instability. Kautilya's Arthashastra identified the significance of training and learning. It clearly stated that training imparted discipline. Kautilya stated that investment in human capital especially in higher education would have a greater impact on the growth and development of the economy.
The three models of governance discussed focus on important components of good governance like justice, equality, dharma, non-violence, economic prosperity, welfare state. The models explain in detail about factors like administration, protecting a state, levying taxes, judiciary, generating revenue to the state exchequer and so on. More importantly, the major focus is on the character of the ruler or the king. A king must exhibit virtues like honesty, compassion, truthfulness, courage, devotion towards the state and the people, loyalty, generosity and simplicity. He should also be merciful and patient towards the problems of the citizens. All these components of good governance and virtues of king are highly relevant for the contemporary world. The major problems of today's governance is absence/delay in justice to citizens and absence of virtues like honesty and truthfulness. Centuries ago ancient Indian rulers knew these are the principles to be followed to achieve good governance and welfare state. It is a sad reality that these fundamental features of ancient governance models are totally missing in the present scenario. Time to introspect and revisit history?
(This article is an extract from a research paper published in a journal earlier by the author. Full paper can be accessed in the following source provided.
http://iba.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/july_dec_2010Sangeethamenon.pdf)
Image Credits: By Avantiputra7 [CC BY-SA 3.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], from Wikimedia Commons
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