Home

Featured Articles

Jan 09, 2025
Dr Ryan Baidya

Understanding Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV): A Rising Global Concern

Introduction Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) is garnering attention as outbreaks emerge globally, including a reported surge in cases among children in China. While not new, this respiratory virus poses a significant public health concern, particularly for vulnerable populations like young children, the elderly, and immuno-compromised individuals. This article explores HMPV’s origins, transmission, current global impact, and preventive measures. What is HMPV Discovered in 2001, HMPV has been circulating globally for decades, causing respiratory infections ranging from mild cold-like symptoms to severe illnesses. Its clinical presentation often overlaps with other respiratory viruses like influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). HMPV is spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes or talks. It can also be transmitted via contaminated surfaces, making hygiene practices critical in curbing its spread. The Current Situation Recent reports from China have highlighted a rise in HMPV cases, primarily affecting children under 14. Hospitals in affected regions have seen increased patient volumes for respiratory illnesses, including HMPV, influenza, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and COVID-19. China has been a breeding ground for deadly viruses such as COVID-19, bird flu, SARS and China proved to be non-cooperative in sharing information so that other nations take necessary precautions to prevent any spreading. Globally, HMPV infections tend to peak in late winter and spring. While seasonal, the virus’s impact is significant in high-risk populations, often leading to hospitalisation. Symptoms and Severity HMPV infections typically present with symptoms like: Fever Cough Runny nose Sore throat Wheezing Shortness of breath Fatigue For most, these symptoms resolve without complications. However, in high-risk groups, the virus can lead to bronchitis or pneumonia, requiring medical intervention. Global Response and Challenges Despite being a known pathogen for over 20 years, no vaccine exists for HMPV. Developing effective vaccines for respiratory viruses remains a challenge due to the rapid mutation rates of these pathogens. Current public health efforts focus on surveillance, early detection and public awareness to minimise the spread. Preventive Measures: Personal Hygiene: Wash hands frequently with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. Use alcohol-based hand sanitizers when soap and water are unavailable. Respiratory Etiquette: Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or elbow when coughing or sneezing. Dispose of tissues immediately and sanitize hands. Avoid Close Contact: Maintain distance from individuals exhibiting symptoms of respiratory illness. Avoid crowded and poorly ventilated areas. Clean and Disinfect: Regularly disinfect high-touch surfaces such as doorknobs, phones and countertops. Boost Immune Health: Eat a balanced diet rich in vitamins and minerals. Stay hydrated and get adequate sleep. Engage in regular physical activity. Natural and Herbal Remedies for Prevention and Coping with HMPV: Immune-Boosting Herbs: Echinacea: Known for its antiviral properties, it helps reduce the severity and duration of respiratory infections. Elderberry: Rich in antioxidants, it can support the immune system and combat flu-like symptoms. Herbal Teas: Ginger Tea: Helps soothe the throat and alleviate congestion. Tulsi (Holy Basil) Tea: Known for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Turmeric Milk: A traditional remedy with curcumin, which has anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting benefits. Mix a teaspoon of turmeric in warm milk and consume before bedtime. Steam Inhalation: Add essential oils like eucalyptus or peppermint to hot water and inhale the steam to relieve congestion. Honey and Lemon: A mixture of honey and lemon in warm water can soothe a sore throat and provide vitamin C to boost immunity. Probiotics: Incorporate yogurt or other probiotic-rich foods to promote gut health, which is closely linked to immune function. Zinc and Vitamin C: Increase intake of zinc-rich foods (pumpkin seeds, nuts) and vitamin C (citrus fruits, bell peppers) to strengthen immunity. When to Seek Medical Help If symptoms worsen or include high fever, severe breathing difficulty, or persistent chest pain, seek medical attention promptly. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial, especially for high-risk groups. While HMPV is not a new threat, its potential to cause widespread illness, particularly among vulnerable populations, underscores the need for vigilance. Public health systems worldwide must enhance surveillance, invest in vaccine research and educate communities about preventive measures to mitigate its impact. Staying informed and adhering to basic hygiene practices are our best defences against HMPV and similar respiratory viruses. Scientific Characteristics of HMPV and RNA Viruses Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV), like many RNA viruses, has a propensity for mutation and adaptation, which can lead to changes in its virulence or transmissibility. Understanding HMPV in the context of other RNA viruses, including SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) and avian influenza (bird flu), reveals how these pathogens evolve and sometimes interact, raising questions about genome swapping and enhanced virulence. Genomic Structure HMPV is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus from the Pneumoviridae family, closely related to Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV). Its genome encodes several proteins essential for replication and immune evasion. Mutation Rates RNA viruses are characterised by high mutation rates due to the lack of proofreading during RNA replication. This allows rapid adaptation to environmental pressures, such as host immune defences or antiviral treatments. Comparison with Other RNA Viruses Virus Family Genome Type Known Recombination Mutation Rate (mutations per site/year) HMPV Pneumoviridae Negative-sense ssRNA Rare Moderate (comparable to RSV) SARS-CoV-2 Coronaviridae Positive-sense ssRNA Common High Influenza A (H5N1) Orthomyxoviridae Segmented ssRNA Frequent (Reassortment) High HMPV's mutation rate is moderate compared to SARS-CoV-2 and influenza, but its evolutionary trajectory can still lead to significant phenotypic changes over time. Potential for Genome Swapping and Reassortment Mechanisms of Viral Evolution Mutation: A gradual accumulation of genetic changes. Recombination: Exchange of genetic material between viruses during co-infection. Reassortment: Exchange of entire genomic segments, primarily in segmented RNA viruses like influenza. HMPV and Genome Swapping HMPV lacks a segmented genome, making reassortment unlikely. However, recombination between co-circulating strains of HMPV or with related viruses (e.g., RSV) is theoretically possible but has not been conclusively demonstrated. Comparison with SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza SARS-CoV-2 frequently undergoes recombination, which has contributed to the emergence of variants with enhanced transmissibility or immune evasion. Influenza’s segmented genome allows for frequent reassortment, a major driver of its pandemic potential (e.g., the H1N1 2009 pandemic). Impact of Co-Circulating Viruses Co-Infections and Viral Evolution During the COVID-19 pandemic, disruptions to immunity and healthcare systems may have altered the epidemiology of other viruses like HMPV. Immune suppression or modulation caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection could facilitate more severe HMPV infections. Co-infections with SARS-CoV-2, influenza, or HMPV might theoretically create opportunities for recombination, though this is uncommon among unrelated RNA viruses. Post-COVID-19 Effects on HMPV Increased surveillance after COVID-19 might have heightened the detection of HMPV. Immune system alterations (e.g., “immune debt” from reduced virus exposure during lockdowns) may have contributed to more severe HMPV cases. Future Risks and Monitoring Enhanced Virulence: Mutation-driven evolution could lead to strains of HMPV with higher transmissibility or pathogenicity. Recombination Events: While rare for HMPV, recombination with related viruses remains a possibility under specific circumstances. Zoonotic Potential: HMPV is thought to have originated from birds. Continuous monitoring for cross-species transmission is crucial. Key Takeaway HMPV’s current rise in severity might reflect a combination of natural viral evolution, immune system changes post-COVID-19 and increased viral interactions in the human population. Understanding these dynamics requires ongoing genomic surveillance and research into co-infections. Viral Combination The potential combination of Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) with SARS-CoV-2 or other highly virulent viruses raises significant concerns due to the possibility of creating a pathogen with enhanced transmissibility, virulence, or immune evasion capabilities. However, the likelihood and consequences of such a combination depend on several biological and ecological factors. Below is an analysis of what such a scenario might entail: Mechanisms of Viral Combination Recombination Recombination occurs when two viruses co-infect the same host cell and exchange genetic material. This is more likely in viruses with similar genomic structures or evolutionary lineages. HMPV and SARS-CoV-2 belong to different virus families (Pneumoviridae and Coronaviridae, respectively) and have distinct genome architectures. This makes recombination between them highly improbable. Reassortment Reassortment involves swapping of genome segments, typically seen in segmented RNA viruses like influenza. Since neither HMPV nor SARS-CoV-2 has a segmented genome, this is not applicable. Viral Synergy (Co-Infection) Co-infection with HMPV and SARS-CoV-2 could lead to synergistic effects, where one virus enhances the pathogenicity or replication of the other. For example, SARS-CoV-2 might suppress the immune system, allowing HMPV to cause more severe disease or vice versa. Potential Consequences of a Combination Enhanced Virulence A virus that combines the immune evasion capabilities of SARS-CoV-2 with the respiratory tropism of HMPV could lead to more severe infections, particularly in vulnerable populations. Such a hybrid might exploit immune system weaknesses, causing more profound lung damage or multi-organ involvement. Increased Transmissibility If a combined virus acquired the transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2, it could spread rapidly, leading to widespread outbreaks. The high mutation rate of RNA viruses could accelerate the evolution of such a pathogen. Immune Evasion A hybrid virus could potentially evade immune responses by combining mechanisms of immune suppression from both parents, complicating vaccine or antiviral development. Disease Severity Co-infections are already associated with worse clinical outcomes. For instance, simultaneous infection with HMPV and SARS-CoV-2 could lead to severe respiratory distress or secondary bacterial infections. Historical Context Influenza and Bacterial Pneumonia: During the 1918 flu pandemic, secondary bacterial infections significantly increased mortality. SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza: Co-infections during the COVID-19 pandemic occasionally resulted in worse outcomes, emphasising the dangers of viral synergy. Mitigation Strategies Surveillance Strengthened global surveillance systems to monitor co-infections and emerging strains. Vaccination Development of vaccines targeting multiple pathogens simultaneously. Antiviral Research Broad-spectrum antivirals effective against multiple respiratory viruses. Public Health Measures Continued emphasis on hygiene, mask-wearing and limiting co-infection risks through vaccination and preventive care. While the direct combination of HMPV and SARS-CoV-2 is biologically unlikely due to their differing genetic structures, the possibility of co-infections or synergistic interactions remains concerning. Such scenarios could exacerbate disease severity, overwhelm healthcare systems and complicate treatment efforts. Proactive surveillance, research, and public health strategies are essential to mitigate these risks. References for further readings van den Hoogen, Bernadette G., Jan C. de Jong, Jozef Groen, Thijs Kuiken, Ronald de Groot, Gijs A. F. S. Berkhout, and Albert D. M. E. Osterhaus. "A Newly Discovered Human Pneumovirus Isolated from Young Children with Respiratory Tract Disease." Nature Medicine 7, no. 6 (2001): 719–24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV)." Last reviewed August 31, 2021. Zhu, Na, Dingqiang Zhang, Wenling Wang, Xingwang Li, Bo Yang, Jingdong Song, et al. "A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019." New England Journal of Medicine 382, no. 8 (2020): 727–33. Taubenberger, Jeffery K., and David M. Morens. "1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics." Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, no. 1 (2006): 15–22. National Institute of Health. "HMPV and Respiratory Illness." NIH Research Matters, June 2, 2023. World Health Organization. "RNA Virus Evolution and Its Implications for Public Health." Weekly Epidemiological Record 92, no. 4 (2017): 37–48. Shen, Minyi, Yunhao Xiao, and Xiang Wei. "The Impact of COVID-19 on Immune Systems and Future Viral Infections." Journal of Immunology Research 2021 (2021): Article ID 5517067. Ison, Michael G. "Respiratory Viral Infections in Transplant Patients: The Role of the Community Respiratory Virus." Clinical Infectious Diseases 50, no. 6 (2010): 817–19. HMPV, SARS-CoV-2, and potential viral interactions: Chen, Na, Min-Qi Zhou, Hua-Dong Zhang, and Yan-Wen Gong. "Co-Infection with SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza Virus in the Early Stage of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review." Frontiers in Public Health 10 (2022): Article 842311. Zheng, Ye, Qiwei Wang, and Zhiwei Li. "Potential Synergies and Competition between SARS-CoV-2 and Other Respiratory Viruses in Co-Infections." Frontiers in Immunology 12 (2021): Article 784641. V'kovski, Philip, Annika Kratzel, Sandra Steiner, Hanspeter Stalder, and Volker Thiel. "Coronavirus Biology and Replication: Implications for SARS-CoV-2." Nature Reviews Microbiology 19, no. 3 (2021): 155–70. van den Hoogen, Bernadette G., Ronald de Groot, and Albert D. M. E. Osterhaus. "History and Emergence of Human Metapneumovirus: Understanding Its Biological Characteristics and Public Health Impact." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16, no. 4 (2003): 615–27. Nickbakhsh, Sema, Laila Thorburn, Richard J. W. von Wissmann, Rebecca McMenamin, Rory N. Gunson, and Pablo R. Murcia. "Viral Interference between Respiratory Viruses: A Protective Effect against Influenza A Virus Subtype Infection?" Journal of Infectious Diseases 219, no. 5 (2019): 627–30. Taubenberger, Jeffery K., and David M. Morens. "1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics." Emerging Infectious Diseases 12, no. 1 (2006): 15–22. Alsharif, Waleed, and Ahmad Qurashi. "Effectiveness of COVID-19 Vaccines in Reducing Severe Cases and Mortality: A Systematic Review." Cureus 14, no. 6 (2022): Article e26169. Image provided by the author.

Jan 08, 2025
Ankita Dutta

Tripura’s Sacred Behling Shiv & its Story of Destruction

Not many people outside the Northeast might be aware of the fact that the “Kuki-Chin-Mizo” people have orchestrated at least 10 major attacks on the non-Christian indigenous tribes of Manipur, Tripura, Assam and Mizoram since 1990, all to occupy their lands and change the demography of the region. Most of these attacks involved indiscriminate rape and torture of women, murder and arson. Religious sites were methodically targeted or destroyed during these coordinated attacks. There is hardly any community in the Northeast with which they have no conflict at all. It’s not that the various small tribal communities settled in the Northeast have never resorted to fighting, killing and competing among themselves. Several historical instances have confirmed that despite similarities in their traits, origins and clans, intra- and inter-tribal conflicts were a common occurrence. But they also emphasised respecting each other’s cultural values and most importantly, their ancestral lands and properties. The “Kuki-Chin-Mizo” language-speaking groups, on the contrary, lack that basic sense of respect towards other communities and their culture and habitats. Their mentality of prioritising ethnic loyalty over nation and duty has cost several thousands of lives. They are war-mongers and have never been trustworthy and loyal to the Indian State. Their unyielding mercenary spirit to fight against the nation has been prevalent throughout history. War and barbarism in any manifestation are alarmingly normalised for them, reflecting a distressing affinity for violence, hatred and suffering. Forcibly trying to distort historical facts to prove their “patriotism” cannot hide their history of brutality. Their relentless attempt to drive out the non-“Kuki-Chin-Mizo” language-speakers is the first step towards creating an independent Kuki nation including parts of India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Mostly the attacks launched against the natives have been unprovoked, arising out of not-so-serious matters that led to extremely unfortunate instances of brutal killings, and torching of houses and properties. Over 1,50,000 Hindus have been displaced due to these pre-planned attacks (including the ongoing Manipur violence), executed to cleanse them from their ancestral lands. Indigenous Hindus have been wiped out from at least 18,500 sq. kilometres of Bharatiya territory. The beautiful state of Manipur, gifted with many rich and diverse cultures, traditions and communities, has learnt its lesson the hard way; we need to wake up to the reality before it is too late. Until the entry of the immigrant “Kuki-Chin-Mizos” who disrupted the peace and unity, indigenous people coexisted harmoniously. They are adept at crying foul against other communities by misusing their “tribal minority” and “Christian” identity, as has always been the case. Besides Manipur and Assam, Tripura has borne the brutality of the Kukis for a long time now. The people of Tripura faced the chronic problem of Kuki raids from 1836 onwards to at least 1860 and afterwards. The Kukis conducted major raids at different periods in the history of Tripura, beginning from the massacre at the Manipuri village of Kochabari in Pratapgarh, Sylhet during the reign of Maharaja Krishna Kishore Manikya. Kuki raids were not based on any demand, and are therefore not to be considered as any movement or revolt against the ruler. The attacks and atrocities of the Kukis were a regular concern for the people of Tripura who had been living a life in peace and harmony till then. The Kukis used to come down from the hills, attack the villages in the plains and kill the innocent villagers. Besides burning houses, they kidnapped women and girls, destroyed crops and grains, and carried away gold, silver and iron. Upon receipt of information regarding the impending arrival of a British military expedition to punish the offending tribes, many times, the Kukis themselves set fire to the place and vanished into the jungles. Attacks carried out by the Kukis on Udaipur, the old capital of Tripura in January 1861 and another in Northern Tripura and Sylhet on January 22, 1862 (popularly known as the Adampur massacre) are the most infamous of all. Tripura was affected by devastating Kuki raids up to 1862, when Birchandra Manikya ascended the throne and initiated a new policy of providing vat or gifts to the Kukis, based on an Agreement between Kuki leaders and the British Government. The King perhaps felt that there was no other way of pacifying the Kukis. But the latter were still not satisfied with this policy of vat. Their inherent violent character of killing and exploiting others has always been the same across all regions in the Northeast. In the contemporary period, unabated immigration of the Chin-Kukis and the subsequent demographic change has led to the ethnic cleansing of several native communities from Tripura. The example of Northern Tripura’s sacred Jampui Hills bordering Mizoram can be cited in this regard. An arcadian region with a glorious Hindu past, Jampui Hills (also known as the “abode of eternal spring”) has become completely Christian-majority primarily because of illegal immigration. This has forced the locals, i.e. the Hindu Reangs, to move out to other safer Hindu-dominated locations. Sibraikhung, the highest mountain peak of Tripura (3,200 ft.) in the Jampui Hills, derives its name from Achu-Sibrai – the supreme deity of the Reangs. At the top of the Sibraikhung hill, a Sibrai temple called Behling Shiv adorned a wonderful stone sculpture of a deity that closely resembled Mahadev and a massive Siva Linga existed earlier. It was a major centre of worship for the Reangs. However, it was destroyed by a group of Christian Mizo and Kuki youths in early 2003. This incident led to the simmering of communal tensions in the area between the aggrieved Hindu tribals and non-tribals on the one hand and Christians on the other. The head priest of the temple was forced to flee and in a cruel gesture of mockery, Behling Shiv was renamed as Betlingchhip (locally pronounced as Balinchhip). This was done with the chief objective of systematically eliminating the historical existence of the Reangs and their Hindu identity from the region. At that time, around 5,000 Mizo tribal families spread over 10 tiny hamlets were residing in the Jampui Hills.[1] Adding fuel to the fire, they subsequently published a map and a news item in Vanglaini, an Aizwal based- Mizo daily, showing Behling Shiv and parts of the Jampui Hills in ‘Greater Mizoram’ (Kukiland).[2] It may be recalled here that in the early 1980s, the erstwhile Mizo National Front (MNF) raised the demand for the inclusion of the Jampui Hills in Mizoram as a condition for peace. However, the fresh demand raised by the newspaper after the destruction of the temple in 2003 and a low-key campaign by political groups disguised as social organisations triggered fresh tensions in the area. After the destruction of the temple, only this stump (as seen in the picture above) remains. In the past two-and-a-half decades prior to the destruction of the Sibrai temple, Jampui Hills was rocked twice by political tension – first, in the early 1980s when the Mizos residing in the area, led by the Jampui Mizo Convention (a socio-religious body) of Tripura demanded a Jampui Autonomous Regional Council under the Autonomous District Council for the “economically and educationally backward” Mizos of Tripura. In late 1997 against the large-scale influx of persecuted Reang Hindu refugees from neighbouring Mizoram. British records (specifically The Imperial Gazetteer of India: Volume IV by William Winson Hunter) have mentioned the name of this place as Betlingsib. After the destruction of the Sibrai temple, Christians planted crosses and verses from the Bible in different areas of the Jampui Hills and also renamed the Sibraikhung peak in the Mizo language as Thaidawr Tlang. Official sources in Kanchanpur Sub-Divisional town, the headquarters of the Jampui Hills, said that the Christian youths had allegedly built a Church-like structure next to the temple housing the deity. Entry to the sacred Jampui Hills, renamed Thaidawr Tlang In 2020, a Tripura-based Hindu group Songrongma announced its plans to construct a Siva temple at the border village of Phuldungsei[3] In the neighbourhood of Betlingchhip adjacent to Thaidawr Tlang. The area has been under the administrative control of North Tripura District since the creation of the state of Tripura in 1972. The proposed community construction work for the temple enraged the Mizo-Kuki Christian community in the area. The Jampui Mizo Convention immediately called for a shutdown in the area, which upset the Government of Tripura. The Mamit district administration of Mizoram went a step ahead by imposing Section 144 of the CrPC in the bordering villages to prevent the movement of people in Phuldungsei.[4] It also asked the Tripura Government to stop any kind of construction work on the temple until the “land dispute” is settled. The administration of North Tripura, however, responded by saying that the State Government had, long ago, built a ‘watch tower’ at the peak of Betlingchhip under the Department of Tourism and that it has been an important tourist destination of Tripura.[5] During the ongoing violence in Manipur, the Mizos of Jampui Hills expressed unity and solidarity with their fellow Kuki-Zo tribes of Manipur. They even assisted people from their community who were victims of the violence with a total sum of Rs. 3 lakh and demanded immediate dismissal of Manipur Chief Minister N. Biren Singh’s Government for its negligence of duty and complacency towards the Kuki-Zo “minority”.[6] At present, the sacred Sibraikhung Hill has been robbed of all its purity. It is extremely regretful that like many other Hindu religious sites in the Northeast, a sacred spot of the minority Hindus in Tripura too, has now been turned into a paradise of young lovers, drunkards drug addicts, gamblers and picnic-goers. Incidences such as the cooking of dog meat by the Christian Mizos in the surroundings of the desecrated Sibrai temple have also been reported (https://fb.watch/sKHyXOu9gh/). The Ram Mandir has been reclaimed after a historic 500-year-long struggle. Other important Hindu temples in different parts of Bharat will be reclaimed soon, hopefully. However, will we ever be able to reclaim these equally important but lesser-known sacred sites of the Hindu civilisation in the Northeast? It is the responsibility of the Hindu society to safeguard its rich history and reclaim the lost heritage of places like Jampui Hills which is currently under the illegal occupation of the Abrahamics. [1]Trouble Brews in Tripura’s Jampui Hills, The Telegraph Online, January 13, 2003. https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/trouble-brews-in-tripura-s-jampui-hills/cid/847030 [2] Ibid. [3] Phuldungsei village falls under the Sabual Village Committee of the Jampui Hills Rural Development Block in Kanchanpur Sub-Division of North Tripura District. [4] Withdraw Section 144 from Border Village: Tripura to Mizoram, The Times of India, October 19, 2020. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agartala/withdraw-section-144-from-border-village-tripura-to-mizoram/articleshow/78749498.cms [5] Ibid. [6] Mizos of Jampui Hill Stand with Kuki-Zo Tribes of Manipur, demands step down of Manipur CM, Tripura Chronicle, July 25, 2023. https://tripurachronicle.in/local-news/mizos-of-jampui-hill-stand-with-kuki-zo-tribes-of-manipur-demands-step-down-of-manipur-cm/